RESEARCH
I am currently Assistant Professor of Speech Pathology & Audiology and Director of the Sign Language Acquisition Lab at Miami University. From 2011-2014 I was the recipient of a National Research Service Award from the National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), one of the National Institutes of Health. This award helped me to found the Deaf Autism Research Project, the first and largest investigation of the effects of autism on the linguistic and cognitive development of deaf children.
My research has primarily focused on how children learn language, particularly under special circumstances. In recent years, I have investigated how deaf children with autism spectrum disorders learn American Sign Language, with an emphasis on the interaction between social difficulties and language development. This type of research can help us better understand autism spectrum disorders in general, and shed light on the processes needed to acquire language.
Check out my academia.edu page or download my published research papers below.
I am currently Assistant Professor of Speech Pathology & Audiology and Director of the Sign Language Acquisition Lab at Miami University. From 2011-2014 I was the recipient of a National Research Service Award from the National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), one of the National Institutes of Health. This award helped me to found the Deaf Autism Research Project, the first and largest investigation of the effects of autism on the linguistic and cognitive development of deaf children.
My research has primarily focused on how children learn language, particularly under special circumstances. In recent years, I have investigated how deaf children with autism spectrum disorders learn American Sign Language, with an emphasis on the interaction between social difficulties and language development. This type of research can help us better understand autism spectrum disorders in general, and shed light on the processes needed to acquire language.
Check out my academia.edu page or download my published research papers below.
Shield, A., Igel, M., Randall, K., & Meier, R.P. (accepted). The source of palm orientation errors in the signing of children with ASD: Imitative, motoric, or both? Brain Sciences.
Palm orientation reversal errors (e.g., producing the 'bye-bye' gesture with palm facing inward rather than outward as is customary in American culture) have been documented in the signing of deaf and hearing children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and in the imitation of gestures by signing and non-signing children with ASD. However the source of these unusual errors remains opaque. Given that children with ASD have documented difficulties with both imitation and motor skills, it is important to clarify the nature of these errors. Here we present a longitudinal case study of a single child with ASD, a hearing, signing child of Deaf parents. Samples of the child’s signing were analyzed at ages 4;11, 6;2, 10;2, and 14;11. Lexical signs and fingerspelled letters were coded for the four parameters of sign articulation (handshape, location, movement, and palm orientation). Errors decreased for handshape, location, and movement after age 4;11, but increased on palm orientation from 4;11 and remained high, exceeding 55% of signs by 14;11. Fingerspelled letters contained a large proportion of 180-degree reversals, which suggest an origin in imitation differences, as well as midline-facing errors, suggestive of a motor origin. These longitudinal data suggest that palm orientation errors could be rooted in both imitation differences and motoric difficulties.
Graham, P., Neild, R., & Shield, A. (accepted). Increasing social awareness for deaf children on the autism spectrum: Innovative strategies. Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education.
Palm orientation reversal errors (e.g., producing the 'bye-bye' gesture with palm facing inward rather than outward as is customary in American culture) have been documented in the signing of deaf and hearing children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and in the imitation of gestures by signing and non-signing children with ASD. However the source of these unusual errors remains opaque. Given that children with ASD have documented difficulties with both imitation and motor skills, it is important to clarify the nature of these errors. Here we present a longitudinal case study of a single child with ASD, a hearing, signing child of Deaf parents. Samples of the child’s signing were analyzed at ages 4;11, 6;2, 10;2, and 14;11. Lexical signs and fingerspelled letters were coded for the four parameters of sign articulation (handshape, location, movement, and palm orientation). Errors decreased for handshape, location, and movement after age 4;11, but increased on palm orientation from 4;11 and remained high, exceeding 55% of signs by 14;11. Fingerspelled letters contained a large proportion of 180-degree reversals, which suggest an origin in imitation differences, as well as midline-facing errors, suggestive of a motor origin. These longitudinal data suggest that palm orientation errors could be rooted in both imitation differences and motoric difficulties.
Graham, P., Neild, R., & Shield, A. (accepted). Increasing social awareness for deaf children on the autism spectrum: Innovative strategies. Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education.
Mazzaggio, G., & Shield, A. (2020). The Production of Pronouns and Verb Inflections by Italian Children with ASD: A New Dataset in a Null Subject Language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi: 10.1007/s10803-019-04349-7
This paper is the first to investigate how Italian children with ASD use pronouns and verbs. While pronouns have often been investigated in the language of children with ASD, few studies have focused on languages in which pronouns are optional because subjects are indicated in verb morphology (null subject or pro-drop languages such as Italian). We find that Italian children with ASD, matched for morphosyntactic abilities with neurotypical Italian children, use pronouns in ways that are different from neurotypical children. First, they are more likely to use proper names rather than pronouns in picture identification, as has been found in a number of other studies in English and ASL. However, this pronoun-avoidance strategy does not appear to extend to all contexts: they are less likely to drop the pronoun (which is the default, unmarked case) when accompanied by a verb that indicates the subject. In both instances, children with ASD appear to be violating the Gricean maxim of quantity ("provide no more information than what is necessary"), which suggests that pragmatic competence could be responsible for the differences in pronoun production that we observe. This study highlights the importance of studying languages other than English to obtain a fuller picture of the language abilities of children with ASD.
This paper is the first to investigate how Italian children with ASD use pronouns and verbs. While pronouns have often been investigated in the language of children with ASD, few studies have focused on languages in which pronouns are optional because subjects are indicated in verb morphology (null subject or pro-drop languages such as Italian). We find that Italian children with ASD, matched for morphosyntactic abilities with neurotypical Italian children, use pronouns in ways that are different from neurotypical children. First, they are more likely to use proper names rather than pronouns in picture identification, as has been found in a number of other studies in English and ASL. However, this pronoun-avoidance strategy does not appear to extend to all contexts: they are less likely to drop the pronoun (which is the default, unmarked case) when accompanied by a verb that indicates the subject. In both instances, children with ASD appear to be violating the Gricean maxim of quantity ("provide no more information than what is necessary"), which suggests that pragmatic competence could be responsible for the differences in pronoun production that we observe. This study highlights the importance of studying languages other than English to obtain a fuller picture of the language abilities of children with ASD.
| shield___meier_2018.pdf |
Shield, A.,& Meier, R.P. (2018). Learning an embodied visual language: Four imitation strategies available to sign learners. Frontiers in Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00811
This paper explores an important consequence of learning a visual language: the fact that there are many different ways to imitate visual linguistic symbols such as manual signs. We describe four different potential imitation strategies available to children and adults learning a sign language: an anatomical strategy (Activate the same muscles as the sign model), which could lead learners to inappropriately use their non-dominant hand; a mirroring strategy (Produce a mirror image of the modeled sign), which could lead learners to produce lateral movement reversal errors or to use the non-dominant hand; a visual matching strategy (Reproduce what you see from your perspective), which could lead learners to produce inward-outward movement and palm orientation reversals; and a reversing strategy (Reproduce what the sign model would see from his/her perspective). We further posit that all children initially use a visual matching strategy but typical children switch to a mirroring strategy sometime in the second year of life; typical adults tend to use a mirroring strategy in learning signs and imitating gestures. By contrast, children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) appear to use the visual matching strategy well into childhood or even adulthood. Finally, we present evidence that sign language exposure changes how adults imitate gestures, switching from a mirroring strategy to the correct reversal strategy.These four strategies for imitation do not exist in speech and as such constitute a unique problem for research in language acquisition.
This paper explores an important consequence of learning a visual language: the fact that there are many different ways to imitate visual linguistic symbols such as manual signs. We describe four different potential imitation strategies available to children and adults learning a sign language: an anatomical strategy (Activate the same muscles as the sign model), which could lead learners to inappropriately use their non-dominant hand; a mirroring strategy (Produce a mirror image of the modeled sign), which could lead learners to produce lateral movement reversal errors or to use the non-dominant hand; a visual matching strategy (Reproduce what you see from your perspective), which could lead learners to produce inward-outward movement and palm orientation reversals; and a reversing strategy (Reproduce what the sign model would see from his/her perspective). We further posit that all children initially use a visual matching strategy but typical children switch to a mirroring strategy sometime in the second year of life; typical adults tend to use a mirroring strategy in learning signs and imitating gestures. By contrast, children and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) appear to use the visual matching strategy well into childhood or even adulthood. Finally, we present evidence that sign language exposure changes how adults imitate gestures, switching from a mirroring strategy to the correct reversal strategy.These four strategies for imitation do not exist in speech and as such constitute a unique problem for research in language acquisition.
| shield_knapke_henry_srinivasan___bhat_2017.pdf |
Shield, A., Knapke, K., Henry, M., Srinivasan, S., & Bhat, A. (2017). Impaired praxis in gesture imitation by deaf children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments.
This paper again looks at the relationship between motor skills and language in deaf children with and without autism. We follow up on previous work on fingerspelling (Bhat et al., 2016, below) by examining how such children imitate simple gestures. We find that deaf children with ASD produce more errors than typical deaf children on six of nine praxis measures (hand orientation, final orientation, modulation, directness, pace, and overflow) and were more impaired on manner parameters than formation parameters, suggesting underlying deficits in motor control/coordination leading to dyspraxia. Praxis scores were strongly related to severity of ASD symptoms and receptive language, suggesting that interventions targeted toward enhancing coordination of hand and finger movements could facilitate language development in children with ASD.
This paper again looks at the relationship between motor skills and language in deaf children with and without autism. We follow up on previous work on fingerspelling (Bhat et al., 2016, below) by examining how such children imitate simple gestures. We find that deaf children with ASD produce more errors than typical deaf children on six of nine praxis measures (hand orientation, final orientation, modulation, directness, pace, and overflow) and were more impaired on manner parameters than formation parameters, suggesting underlying deficits in motor control/coordination leading to dyspraxia. Praxis scores were strongly related to severity of ASD symptoms and receptive language, suggesting that interventions targeted toward enhancing coordination of hand and finger movements could facilitate language development in children with ASD.
| shield_cooley_meier_2017.pdf |
Shield, A., Cooley, F., & Meier, R.P. (2017). Sign language echolalia in deaf children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research.
This paper documents and describes the phenomenon of sign language echolalia in a sample of deaf, signing children. We find that a subset of deaf children with autism produce sign language echoes, much like hearing children with autism. Moreover the children who produced the echoes had poorer receptive language than children with autism who did not produce echoes. Thus, the phenomenon of echolalia occurs in sign just as it does in speech, and appears to be strongly related to poor language comprehension. Moreover, we document several modality differences between signed and spoken echoes, related to the timing, repetitive nature, and directionality of the echoes themselves.
This paper documents and describes the phenomenon of sign language echolalia in a sample of deaf, signing children. We find that a subset of deaf children with autism produce sign language echoes, much like hearing children with autism. Moreover the children who produced the echoes had poorer receptive language than children with autism who did not produce echoes. Thus, the phenomenon of echolalia occurs in sign just as it does in speech, and appears to be strongly related to poor language comprehension. Moreover, we document several modality differences between signed and spoken echoes, related to the timing, repetitive nature, and directionality of the echoes themselves.
| bhat_et_al_2016.pdf |
Bhat, A.N., Srinivasan, S.M., Woxholdt, C., & Shield, A. (2016). Differences in praxis performance and receptive language during fingerspelling between deaf children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Autism. doi: 10.1177/1362361316672179
This paper examines the relationship between motor skills and language in deaf children with and without autism. We find that there is a strong relationship between the two: children with poorer receptive language also showed greater motor problems on a fingerspelling task, producing handshakes more slowly and with more errors than children with stronger receptive language. This paper adds to the literature on praxis problems in autism and extends previous work to deaf, signing children.
This paper examines the relationship between motor skills and language in deaf children with and without autism. We find that there is a strong relationship between the two: children with poorer receptive language also showed greater motor problems on a fingerspelling task, producing handshakes more slowly and with more errors than children with stronger receptive language. This paper adds to the literature on praxis problems in autism and extends previous work to deaf, signing children.
| shield_pyers_martin_t-f_2016.pdf |
Shield, A., Pyers, J., Martin, A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2016). Relations between language and cognition in native-signing children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research. doi: 10.1002/aur.1621
This paper explores the language and cognitive abilities of deaf, native-signing children with and without autism. It is the first study to describe the theory of mind, visual perspective-taking, and mental rotation abilities of deaf children with autism. It also reinforces previous research finding a strong relationship between language development and social cognition, especially theory of mind.
This paper explores the language and cognitive abilities of deaf, native-signing children with and without autism. It is the first study to describe the theory of mind, visual perspective-taking, and mental rotation abilities of deaf children with autism. It also reinforces previous research finding a strong relationship between language development and social cognition, especially theory of mind.
| Shield, Meier, & Tager-Flusberg (2015), Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.pdf |
Shield, A., Meier, R.P., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2015). The use of sign language pronouns by native-signing children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 2128-2145.
This paper describes how signing children with autism use sign language pronouns. We found that deaf children with autism used name signs and nouns rather than sign pronouns on a picture-identification task. This is despite the fact that sign language pronouns are points of the index finger to self and other. Thus, deaf and hearing children with autism show similar difficulties with the use of pronouns, suggesting that differences in how children with autism conceive of the self may be at issue.
Read media coverage of this paper by the American Speech Language and Hearing Association (ASHA) Leader, the Daily Texan, and the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI).
This paper describes how signing children with autism use sign language pronouns. We found that deaf children with autism used name signs and nouns rather than sign pronouns on a picture-identification task. This is despite the fact that sign language pronouns are points of the index finger to self and other. Thus, deaf and hearing children with autism show similar difficulties with the use of pronouns, suggesting that differences in how children with autism conceive of the self may be at issue.
Read media coverage of this paper by the American Speech Language and Hearing Association (ASHA) Leader, the Daily Texan, and the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI).
| Shield (2014), Seminars in Speech and Language.pdf |
Shield, A. (2014). Preliminary findings of similarities and differences in the speech and sign language of children with autism. Seminars in Speech and Language, 35, 309-320.
This paper, addressed to a clinical audience, describes similarities and differences between the signing and speaking of children with autism spectrum disorders.
This paper, addressed to a clinical audience, describes similarities and differences between the signing and speaking of children with autism spectrum disorders.
| Mood & Shield (2014), Seminars in Speech and Language.pdf |
Mood, D., & Shield, A. (2014). Clinical use of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition with children who are deaf. Seminars in Speech and Language, 35, 288-300.
Dr. Deborah Mood and I investigated the use of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) with deaf children, and found that following official guidelines leads to misclassification of such children. We recommend adjustment of several criteria for deaf children.
Dr. Deborah Mood and I investigated the use of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) with deaf children, and found that following official guidelines leads to misclassification of such children. We recommend adjustment of several criteria for deaf children.
| Shield & Meier (2014), BUCLD Proceedings.pdf |
Shield, A., & Meier, R.P. (2014). Personal pronoun avoidance in deaf children with autism. In W. Orman & M.J. Valleau (Eds.), Proceedings of the 38th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (403-415). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
In this paper, Dr. Richard P. Meier and I show that deaf children with autism sometimes use names (e.g. "John") rather than pronouns (e.g. "I" or "me") to refer to themselves, just as some hearing children with autism do. This is in spite of the fact that pronouns in sign are transparent points to self and other. This suggests that pronouns are difficult for children with autism regardless of whether they occur in sign or in speech.
In this paper, Dr. Richard P. Meier and I show that deaf children with autism sometimes use names (e.g. "John") rather than pronouns (e.g. "I" or "me") to refer to themselves, just as some hearing children with autism do. This is in spite of the fact that pronouns in sign are transparent points to self and other. This suggests that pronouns are difficult for children with autism regardless of whether they occur in sign or in speech.
| Shield & Meier (2013), Multilingual Matters.pdf |
Shield, A. & Meier, R.P. (2013). The acquisition of sign language by deaf children with autism spectrum disorder. In D. Quinto-Pozos (Ed.), Multilingual Aspects of Signed Language Communication and Disorder (90-122). Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about how deaf children with autism acquire signed languages, and suggests areas of future research.
This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about how deaf children with autism acquire signed languages, and suggests areas of future research.
| Shield & Meier (2012), Journal of Communication Disorders |
Shield, A.,& Meier, R.P (2012). Palm reversal errors in native-signing children with autism. Journal of Communication Disorders, 45, 439-454.
This paper describes a novel error type -- palm orientation reversals -- documented in the signing of children with autism who have been exposed to sign from birth by their deaf parents. This error type may be a unique marker of autism in deaf children.
This paper describes a novel error type -- palm orientation reversals -- documented in the signing of children with autism who have been exposed to sign from birth by their deaf parents. This error type may be a unique marker of autism in deaf children.
| Goldin-Meadow, Shield, Lenzen, Herzig, & Padden (2012), Cognition.pdf |
Goldin-Meadow, S., Shield, A., Lenzen, D., Herzig, M., & C. Padden (2012). The gestures ASL signers use tell us when they are ready to learn math. Cognition, 123, 448-453.
In this paper, we show that deaf children use a combination of signs and gestures to explain a math task, just as hearing children use words and gestures. Importantly, their gestures (but not their signs) can allow us to predict which children are ready to learn how to do math.
In this paper, we show that deaf children use a combination of signs and gestures to explain a math task, just as hearing children use words and gestures. Importantly, their gestures (but not their signs) can allow us to predict which children are ready to learn how to do math.
